Relative pronouns are fundamental building blocks of complex sentences in English. They serve to connect dependent clauses to independent clauses, adding crucial information and detail. Mastering their correct usage is essential for clear and sophisticated communication.
The most common relative pronouns are “who,” “which,” and “that.” While they share the function of introducing relative clauses, their application depends on the type of noun they refer to and the grammatical role they play within the clause.
Understanding the Function of Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns act as bridges, linking a descriptive clause (the relative clause) to a noun or pronoun (the antecedent) in the main part of the sentence. This connection allows for the efficient conveyance of additional information without creating choppy, short sentences.
Without relative pronouns, we would often need to use multiple sentences to express the same idea. For instance, instead of “The woman who is wearing the red hat is my aunt,” we might say, “The woman is wearing the red hat. She is my aunt.” The relative pronoun streamlines this.
These pronouns also function as subjects or objects within their own clauses, maintaining grammatical coherence. This dual role—connecting and functioning within the clause—is what makes them so powerful.
‘Who’: The Pronoun for People
The relative pronoun “who” is exclusively used when referring to people. It is the most straightforward of the three primary relative pronouns in this regard.
“Who” can function as the subject of the relative clause. In this case, it performs the action described by the verb in the clause. Consider the sentence, “The artist who painted this masterpiece is a genius.” Here, “who” refers to “the artist” and is the subject of the verb “painted.”
Alternatively, “who” can act as the object of the relative clause. This means it receives the action of the verb or is the object of a preposition. For example, “The student who the teacher praised is very diligent.” In this sentence, “who” refers to “the student” and is the object of the verb “praised.”
When “who” is the object of a preposition, the preposition often precedes it. This is a common construction, especially in more formal writing. “The person to whom I spoke was very helpful.” Here, “whom” (the objective case of “who”) is used correctly after the preposition “to,” referring back to “the person.”
It is important to note the distinction between “who” and “whom.” “Who” is used for the subject case, while “whom” is used for the object case. While “whom” is becoming less common in everyday speech, it remains important in formal contexts and for precise grammatical accuracy.
Let’s look at another example illustrating “who” as a subject: “The detective who solved the case received a medal.” The clause “who solved the case” describes the detective, and “who” is the subject performing the action of solving. This clarifies the detective’s identity.
Consider “who” as an object: “The candidate who the voters supported won the election.” Here, “who” (or more formally, “whom”) refers to “the candidate,” and the voters are the ones performing the action of supporting. The candidate is the recipient of that support.
The sentence “She is the friend who always has my back” uses “who” as the subject of the verb “has.” This emphasizes the reliable nature of the friend, connecting her actions directly to her identity.
When the relative pronoun is the object of a verb within the relative clause, and the clause is restrictive, “who” can sometimes be omitted. However, this is less common than omitting “that” or “which” in similar situations. “The person I met yesterday was fascinating.” Here, “who” is implied between “person” and “I.”
Understanding the subject-verb agreement within the relative clause is key to correctly using “who.” If the pronoun is doing the action, it’s the subject; if it’s receiving the action or governed by a preposition, it’s the object.
The use of “who” extends to clauses that define or identify people. “He is the brother who lives in London.” This sentence uses “who” to specify which brother is being discussed, assuming the speaker has more than one brother.
In questions, “who” is also used directly: “Who is at the door?” When used in a relative clause, it functions similarly, introducing a defining characteristic. “The person who answered the phone was polite.”
The objective case, “whom,” is particularly important after prepositions. “The committee, for whom the report was prepared, expressed their gratitude.” The phrase “for whom” clearly indicates that the report was prepared for the committee.
Mastering “who” and “whom” requires careful attention to the grammatical role the pronoun plays within its clause. It’s about identifying whether the pronoun is the actor or the recipient of the action, or if it follows a preposition.
‘Which’: The Pronoun for Things and Animals
The relative pronoun “which” is primarily used to refer to things, animals, and abstract concepts. It does not refer to people.
“Which” is most commonly used in non-restrictive clauses. These clauses provide additional, non-essential information about the antecedent and are set off by commas. “The old house, which had been empty for years, was finally sold.” The clause “which had been empty for years” adds extra detail about the house but isn’t necessary to identify which house is being discussed.
In restrictive clauses (clauses essential for identification), “which” can also be used, though “that” is often preferred for things. “The car which is parked illegally will be towed.” Here, “which is parked illegally” identifies the specific car that will be towed.
When “which” functions as the subject of the relative clause, it performs the action. “The book which is on the table belongs to me.” “Which” refers to “the book” and is the subject of the verb “is.”
As an object, “which” receives the action or is governed by a preposition. “The project which we completed last week was a success.” “Which” refers to “the project” and is the object of the verb “completed.”
Using “which” in non-restrictive clauses adds descriptive color without altering the core meaning of the sentence. This makes sentences more engaging and informative for the reader.
Consider the sentence: “My dog, which loves to chase squirrels, is always energetic.” The clause “which loves to chase squirrels” provides interesting but not essential information about the dog. We already know which dog is being discussed.
However, if the clause is essential to identify the specific item, “which” can be used, but “that” is often more common. “The software which caused the system crash has been identified.” This clause is restrictive because it tells us *which* software caused the problem.
The structure “preposition + which” is common, especially in formal writing. “The decision to which we must adhere is final.” Here, “which” refers to “the decision,” and the preposition “to” connects them.
It’s important to distinguish when “which” is appropriate versus when “that” might be a better choice, particularly in restrictive clauses. While both can sometimes be used, “that” is generally preferred for things in restrictive clauses.
The sentence “She finally bought the dress which she had been admiring for months” uses “which” to refer to the dress. The clause “which she had been admiring for months” is restrictive, identifying the specific dress.
When referring to animals, “which” is standard. “The cat which sat on the fence watched the birds.” This clearly identifies the cat in question through its action.
Abstract concepts also fall under the purview of “which.” “The idea which he proposed was innovative.” The clause explains which idea is being discussed.
The key takeaway for “which” is its association with non-human antecedents and its frequent use in non-restrictive clauses to add descriptive detail.
Remember that “which” can also be omitted when it functions as the object of the relative clause, similar to “that.” “The report (which/that) we submitted yesterday is being reviewed.”
The careful placement of commas is crucial when using “which” in non-restrictive clauses. Their absence can change the meaning of the sentence, making a non-essential clause essential.
‘That’: The Versatile Pronoun for Things and Sometimes People
The relative pronoun “that” is highly versatile and can refer to both people and things. It is most commonly used in restrictive clauses.
“That” is the preferred pronoun for introducing restrictive clauses when referring to things or animals. “The book that is on the shelf is mine.” The clause “that is on the shelf” is essential to identify which book belongs to the speaker.
In restrictive clauses referring to people, “that” can also be used, though “who” is often considered more formal or preferred by some style guides. “The person that called earlier left a message.” While grammatically correct, “who” might be chosen in more formal writing.
“That” can function as the subject of the relative clause. “This is the car that broke down yesterday.” Here, “that” refers to “the car” and is the subject of the verb “broke.”
It can also function as the object of the relative clause. “The gift that I received was beautiful.” “That” refers to “the gift” and is the object of the verb “received.”
A significant characteristic of “that” is that it can often be omitted when it acts as the object of the relative clause. “The gift I received was beautiful.” The omission makes the sentence flow more smoothly.
When introducing restrictive clauses, “that” is generally preferred over “which” for things. This distinction helps to clarify the nature of the clause—whether it’s essential information or an add-on.
Consider the sentence: “The computer that I bought last week is already malfunctioning.” The clause “that I bought last week” is restrictive, identifying the specific computer. Omitting “that” is also possible here: “The computer I bought last week is already malfunctioning.”
The use of “that” for people in restrictive clauses is a point of stylistic variation. While accepted, many prefer “who” for clarity and formality. “He is the employee that always meets his deadlines.”
The key to using “that” effectively lies in recognizing its role in restrictive clauses and its preference for non-human antecedents in such contexts. Its ability to be omitted as an object further enhances its utility.
When “that” follows a preposition, the structure is usually different from “which” or “whom.” You cannot typically say “the box that I put the keys in.” Instead, it would be “the box in which I put the keys” or “the box that I put the keys in.” The preposition usually comes at the end of the clause or is used with “which/whom.”
The sentence “She remembered the song that played during their first dance” uses “that” as a restrictive relative pronoun referring to “the song.” The clause is essential for identifying which song is being remembered.
The versatility of “that” makes it a workhorse in English grammar, particularly for adding necessary descriptive elements to sentences concisely.
It’s important to remember that “that” is generally not used in non-restrictive clauses. For additional information about things, “which” is the appropriate choice. “The Eiffel Tower, that is a famous landmark, is in Paris.” This is incorrect; it should be “The Eiffel Tower, which is a famous landmark, is in Paris.”
The ability to omit “that” when it’s the object is a significant grammatical feature that contributes to sentence fluency. “The movie that we watched was quite suspenseful.” This can be shortened to “The movie we watched was quite suspenseful.”
In summary, “that” is the go-to for restrictive clauses, especially with things, and can also refer to people in similar contexts, often with the option of omission when it’s the object.
Distinguishing Between Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses
The difference between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses is crucial for correct relative pronoun usage. Restrictive clauses are essential for identifying the antecedent.
Restrictive clauses are not set off by commas. They limit or define the noun they modify. “The car that is red is mine.” This tells us *which* car is mine—the red one.
Non-restrictive clauses, on the other hand, provide additional, non-essential information. They are always set off by commas. “My car, which is red, is parked outside.” The fact that the car is red is extra information; the speaker likely only has one car, or the context makes it clear which car is being discussed.
The choice of relative pronoun often depends on whether the clause is restrictive or non-restrictive. “Who” and “whom” can be used in both, but “which” is primarily for non-restrictive clauses (for things), while “that” is primarily for restrictive clauses (for things).
For example, “The dog that barked all night kept me awake” uses “that” in a restrictive clause to specify which dog. If the speaker has only one dog, they might say, “My dog, which barked all night, kept me awake,” using “which” in a non-restrictive clause.
Understanding this distinction clarifies why certain pronouns are preferred in specific contexts. It affects sentence meaning and clarity significantly.
Consider the implications of comma usage. The presence or absence of commas dictates the nature of the relative clause and, consequently, the appropriate pronoun choice.
When a clause is essential to identify the noun, it is restrictive. “Students who complete their homework receive good grades.” This implies there are students who don’t complete homework, and the clause specifies the group receiving good grades.
When a clause simply adds descriptive detail to an already identified noun, it is non-restrictive. “My brother, who lives in Canada, is visiting next month.” The clause “who lives in Canada” adds information about the brother but isn’t needed to identify him if the speaker has only one brother.
The pronoun “that” is generally reserved for restrictive clauses. Using it in a non-restrictive context is typically considered incorrect. “The novel, that won an award, is a bestseller.” This should be “The novel, which won an award, is a bestseller.”
Conversely, “which” is most often used in non-restrictive clauses. While it can sometimes be used in restrictive clauses (especially in British English), “that” is usually preferred for things in American English.
The careful application of commas and the understanding of a clause’s essentiality are paramount to accurate relative pronoun usage.
Advanced Usage and Common Pitfalls
One common pitfall is the incorrect use of “who” and “whom.” Remember, “who” is subjective (like “he” or “she”), and “whom” is objective (like “him” or “her”). A simple test is to substitute “he/she” or “him/her” into the clause.
If “he” or “she” fits, use “who.” If “him” or “her” fits, use “whom.” For instance, in “The person who/whom answered the phone,” ask: “Who/Whom answered the phone?” “He answered the phone,” so “who” is correct.
In “The person who/whom I saw,” ask: “I saw who/whom?” “I saw him,” so “whom” is correct.
Another issue is the misuse of “that” in non-restrictive clauses. As mentioned, “that” should be avoided when commas are present, and “which” should be used instead for things.
Confusing relative pronouns with interrogative pronouns (who, which, what) can also lead to errors. While they share forms, their function in a sentence differs significantly.
The omission of relative pronouns can be a source of confusion. When the pronoun is the object of the clause, it can often be omitted. “The movie (that/which) I saw was great.” This is correct and common.
However, a relative pronoun cannot be omitted if it is the subject of the relative clause. “The man who is standing there is my father.” You cannot omit “who” here.
A more subtle point is the “preposition stranding” rule. In informal English, it’s common to end a sentence with a preposition. “This is the book that I told you about.” This is perfectly acceptable in most contexts.
In more formal English, the preposition is often placed before the relative pronoun. “This is the book about which I told you.” This construction is grammatically sound but can sound stilted if overused.
Understanding the nuances of “who” vs. “whom” is a key step towards grammatical mastery. Practice substituting subject and object pronouns to solidify this understanding.
The careful use of commas is also an advanced skill. They are not mere punctuation; they dictate the grammatical function and meaning of relative clauses.
Be mindful of antecedents. The relative pronoun must clearly refer to a specific noun. Ambiguous antecedents lead to unclear sentences.
For example, “The report was sent to the manager and the director, who were both out of the office.” Does “who” refer to the manager, the director, or both? Clarification is needed.
Consider the sentence: “He gave the keys to the man who was waiting.” Is “who was waiting” essential to identify the man, or is it just extra information about an already identified man? The context and punctuation are key.
Finally, recognize that language evolves. While strict rules exist, particularly in formal writing, everyday speech often allows for more flexibility. However, a strong grasp of the standard rules is foundational for effective communication.
The goal is clarity and precision. By understanding these distinctions and practicing their application, writers can significantly enhance the quality of their prose.