Relative pronouns are foundational elements of clear and sophisticated writing. They connect clauses, adding detail and context without introducing new subjects unnecessarily. Understanding their function is key to constructing complex sentences with precision.
This guide delves into the intricacies of relative pronouns, offering a comprehensive breakdown for learners of all levels. We will explore their types, uses, and common pitfalls, accompanied by practical examples and exercises to solidify your grasp.
Understanding Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns serve as bridges between main clauses and dependent (or relative) clauses. They introduce descriptive information about a noun or pronoun mentioned in the main clause, known as the antecedent. These pronouns include who, whom, whose, which, and that.
The primary role of a relative pronoun is to link a relative clause back to its antecedent. This relative clause provides additional information, often essential for identifying or describing the antecedent. Without relative pronouns, sentences would become choppy and repetitive, lacking flow and complexity.
Consider the sentence: “The book is on the table.” This is a simple statement. Now, imagine you want to specify which book. You might say: “The book that is on the table belongs to me.” Here, “that” introduces the relative clause “that is on the table,” identifying the specific book.
Defining the Antecedent
The antecedent is the noun or pronoun to which the relative pronoun refers. It is crucial to identify the antecedent correctly because the relative pronoun’s form and function depend on it. The antecedent typically precedes the relative pronoun.
For instance, in “The dog, which barked all night, finally fell asleep,” the antecedent of “which” is “dog.” This establishes a clear link, ensuring the reader understands that the barking originated from the dog.
Sometimes, the antecedent can be a bit more abstract, referring to an entire idea or clause. For example, “He forgot to lock the door, which was careless of him.” Here, “which” refers to the entire act of forgetting to lock the door, not just the door itself.
The Key Relative Pronouns: Who, Whom, and Whose
These pronouns are used exclusively for people. Their selection depends on their grammatical function within the relative clause: subject, object, or possessive.
“Who” acts as the subject of the relative clause. It performs the action or is the state of being described. Think of it as interchangeable with “he,” “she,” or “they” when they are the subject of a sentence.
An example is: “The woman who called you is my sister.” In this sentence, “who” is the subject of the verb “called” in the relative clause “who called you.” The woman performed the action of calling.
“Whom” functions as the object of the relative clause, either the direct object or the object of a preposition. If you can replace the relative pronoun with “him,” “her,” or “them” as an object, then “whom” is likely the correct choice.
Consider: “The student whom the teacher praised received an award.” Here, “whom” is the direct object of “praised” in the clause “whom the teacher praised.” The teacher praised the student.
“Whose” indicates possession. It shows that something belongs to the antecedent. It is the possessive form, similar to “his,” “her,” or “their.”
Use it like this: “The artist whose paintings are displayed here is famous.” The paintings belong to the artist, making “whose” the appropriate possessive relative pronoun.
Distinguishing Who and Whom
The distinction between “who” and “whom” often causes confusion. A simple test involves rephrasing the relative clause as a separate sentence. If the pronoun would be “he” or “she” in that sentence, use “who.” If it would be “him” or “her,” use “whom.”
Let’s test this: “The person who is knocking is my friend.” Rephrased clause: “He is knocking.” Since “he” is the subject, “who” is correct.
Now for “whom”: “The person whom I met yesterday was very helpful.” Rephrased clause: “I met him yesterday.” Since “him” is the object, “whom” is correct.
Remember that “whom” is often followed by a preposition, such as “to whom,” “for whom,” or “with whom.” This structure clearly marks “whom” as the object of that preposition.
Mastering Whose
“Whose” is straightforward in its possessive function. It can refer to people, animals, or even inanimate objects when possession is implied.
Example: “The car whose tires were bald had to be repaired.” The tires belong to the car.
It’s important to note that “whose” is sometimes avoided in informal speech and writing, with alternatives like “of which” being used. However, for formal clarity, “whose” remains the preferred possessive relative pronoun for both people and things.
The Versatile Relative Pronouns: Which and That
These pronouns are used for animals and things, and sometimes for people in specific contexts. Their usage is further distinguished by whether the relative clause is restrictive or non-restrictive.
“Which” is typically used for non-restrictive clauses. These clauses provide extra, non-essential information about the antecedent. They are usually set off by commas.
Consider: “My car, which is red, needs a wash.” The clause “which is red” is non-restrictive; it adds extra detail about the car but isn’t essential to identify it. The sentence still makes sense without it.
“That” is generally used for restrictive clauses. These clauses are essential for identifying the antecedent. They are not set off by commas.
Example: “The car that is parked illegally will be towed.” The clause “that is parked illegally” is restrictive; it specifies which car will be towed. Removing it would make the sentence ambiguous.
Restrictive vs. Non-Restrictive Clauses
The difference between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses hinges on essentiality. A restrictive clause is vital for meaning, defining or limiting the antecedent. A non-restrictive clause offers supplementary information that can be omitted without altering the core meaning.
Punctuation is the key visual cue. Restrictive clauses are embedded directly, while non-restrictive clauses are set apart by commas, parentheses, or dashes. This punctuation signals that the enclosed information is parenthetical.
Understanding this distinction is paramount for correct pronoun usage and sentence clarity. Incorrectly punctuating a clause can change its restrictive or non-restrictive nature and, consequently, the relative pronoun used.
When to Use Which
Use “which” for non-restrictive clauses referring to things or animals. These clauses add descriptive detail without limiting the identity of the antecedent. They are set off by commas.
For instance: “The software, which I installed yesterday, is causing problems.” The fact that the software was installed yesterday is additional information.
It is generally advised to avoid using “which” in restrictive clauses, especially in formal writing, though it is common in informal speech. Stick to “that” for restrictive clauses when referring to things or animals.
When to Use That
Use “that” for restrictive clauses referring to things or animals. These clauses are essential for identifying the antecedent and are not separated by commas.
An example is: “The book that you lent me is fascinating.” This tells us specifically which book is fascinating.
While “that” can sometimes refer to people in informal contexts, it is generally considered less respectful and is best avoided. Stick to “who” or “whom” for people.
The Relative Pronoun ‘As’
While less common than the others, “as” can function as a relative pronoun, particularly when referring to “such” or “same.” It introduces clauses that provide comparison or example.
It often appears in constructions like “such as” or “the same as.” Here, “as” connects a general category or comparison to specific instances.
Consider the sentence: “He possesses such knowledge as is rarely found.” In this case, “as” relates to “knowledge,” introducing a clause that describes the extent or rarity of that knowledge.
‘As’ in Comparisons
When “as” is used to introduce a comparison, it links a subordinate clause to a preceding main clause. This often involves a degree of similarity or equivalence.
Example: “Do as I say, not as I do.” The first “as” introduces the action to be performed, and the second “as” introduces the action that is not to be emulated.
This usage highlights the comparative function of “as” as a relative pronoun, linking actions or states based on a model or precedent.
Omitting Relative Pronouns
In certain situations, relative pronouns can be omitted from a sentence, making the writing more concise. This is possible when the relative pronoun acts as the object of the relative clause.
The rule is: if the relative pronoun is the object of the verb or a preposition in its clause, and it refers to the antecedent, it can often be left out. This applies to who (as object), whom, which, and that.
For example, “The book (that) I read was interesting” is grammatically correct because “that” is the object of “read.” I read the book.
Similarly, “The person (whom) I met was friendly” is also correct. I met the person.
However, if the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, it cannot be omitted. For instance, in “The man who is standing there is my uncle,” “who” is the subject of “is standing,” so it must remain.
When Omission is Appropriate
Omitting relative pronouns is a stylistic choice that can enhance fluency and conciseness. It is particularly effective in avoiding wordiness and creating a smoother flow.
This technique is most common with “that” and “which” when they function as objects in restrictive clauses. It’s a subtle way to streamline sentences without sacrificing clarity.
Always ensure that omitting the pronoun does not create ambiguity or make the sentence grammatically unsound. The meaning should remain perfectly clear.
Common Errors and How to Avoid Them
One frequent mistake is the misuse of “who” and “whom.” Remembering the subject/object distinction is key. If in doubt, try the “he/him” or “she/her” substitution test.
Another common error is the incorrect use of commas with restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. Always set off non-restrictive clauses with commas, and never use commas for restrictive clauses.
Confusing “which” and “that” is also prevalent. Remember: “that” for restrictive clauses (no commas), “which” for non-restrictive clauses (with commas).
The Dangling Modifier Problem
A dangling modifier occurs when a modifying phrase or clause does not clearly and logically modify the intended word in the sentence. This often happens with introductory phrases and relative clauses.
For example, “Walking down the street, the buildings looked tall.” This implies the buildings were walking. The intended subject is likely “I” or “we,” but it’s missing.
To fix a dangling modifier, ensure the word being modified is present and clearly identified, or rephrase the sentence to make the connection explicit. In the previous example, it could become: “Walking down the street, I thought the buildings looked tall.”
Agreement Errors
Relative pronouns must agree in number and person with their antecedents. This means if the antecedent is singular, the pronoun and any associated verbs should be singular; if plural, then plural.
Consider: “The committee, which meets weekly, made a decision.” “Committee” is singular, so “which” refers to a singular entity. The verb “meets” is also singular.
However, if the antecedent is plural, the agreement changes: “The students who are studying for the exam are tired.” “Students” is plural, so “who” refers to multiple people, and “are” is the plural verb form.
Be particularly careful with collective nouns and phrases that might obscure the true number of the antecedent. For instance, “The box of books, which was heavy, fell.” Here, “which” refers to “box” (singular), not “books.”
Practice Exercises
To solidify your understanding, let’s test your knowledge. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that). Remember to consider the antecedent and the function of the pronoun within the clause.
Exercise 1: The artist ____ painted this portrait is renowned. (who/whom/whose/which/that)
Answer: The artist **who** painted this portrait is renowned.
Exercise 2: The car ____ I bought last week is already giving me trouble. (who/whom/whose/which/that)
Answer: The car **that** I bought last week is already giving me trouble.
Exercise 3: This is the student ____ parents are coming to the meeting. (who/whom/whose/which/that)
Answer: This is the student **whose** parents are coming to the meeting.
Exercise 4: My neighbor, ____ dog barks incessantly, has been warned multiple times. (who/whom/whose/which/that)
Answer: My neighbor, **whose** dog barks incessantly, has been warned multiple times.
Exercise 5: The report, ____ was submitted late, incurred a penalty. (who/whom/whose/which/that)
Answer: The report, **which** was submitted late, incurred a penalty.
Exercise 6: The company ____ employs thousands has a strong environmental policy. (who/whom/whose/which/that)
Answer: The company **that** employs thousands has a strong environmental policy.
Exercise 7: The manager to ____ you spoke is on vacation. (who/whom/whose/which/that)
Answer: The manager **whom** you spoke to is on vacation. (Or: The manager **to whom** you spoke is on vacation.)
Exercise 8: The idea ____ he proposed was innovative. (who/whom/whose/which/that)
Answer: The idea **that** he proposed was innovative.
Exercise 9: The children, ____ were playing in the park, went home for dinner. (who/whom/whose/which/that)
Answer: The children, **who** were playing in the park, went home for dinner.
Exercise 10: This is the house in ____ I grew up. (who/whom/whose/which/that)
Answer: This is the house **in which** I grew up. (Or: This is the house **where** I grew up. Omission is also possible: This is the house I grew up in.)
Advanced Considerations
Beyond the basic rules, there are nuanced applications of relative pronouns. For instance, “what” can function as a relative pronoun, but it doesn’t have a clear antecedent. It essentially combines the antecedent and the relative pronoun.
Consider: “I don’t know what to do.” Here, “what” introduces the clause “to do,” and it implies “the thing that” or “that which.” It refers to an unspecified thing.
This usage is common in reported speech and indirect questions, where the focus is on the content of the clause rather than a specific preceding noun.
‘What’ as a Relative Pronoun
When “what” is used, it means “that which” or “the thing(s) which.” It synthesizes the antecedent and the relative pronoun into a single word.
Example: “She explained what she meant.” This is equivalent to “She explained the thing which she meant.” The antecedent is implied rather than explicitly stated.
This form is powerful for creating concise statements about undefined or general concepts. It allows for a direct connection between an action or statement and its content.
Relative Pronouns with Prepositions
When a preposition governs the relative clause, it often precedes the relative pronoun, especially in formal writing. This is common with “whom,” “which,” and sometimes “who.”
For example: “This is the book about which I told you.” The preposition “about” directly links to “which.”
In less formal contexts, the preposition may appear at the end of the sentence, and the relative pronoun might be omitted: “This is the book I told you about.” Both are grammatically correct, but the former is more formal.
When using “whom” with a preceding preposition, it clearly marks “whom” as the object. “The candidate for whom the job was created withdrew.” Here, “whom” is the object of “for.”
Conclusion on Relative Pronouns
Mastering relative pronouns enhances sentence structure and clarity significantly. Their correct application allows for the seamless integration of descriptive information, enriching the overall quality of written communication.
By understanding the distinct roles of who, whom, whose, which, that, and the nuances of ‘as’ and ‘what,’ you can construct more complex and precise sentences. Consistent practice and attention to detail will ensure accurate and effective usage.