Relative clauses are essential building blocks in English grammar, allowing us to add detail and specificity to our sentences. They function like adjectives, modifying nouns or pronouns by providing extra information about who or what we are talking about. Understanding and correctly using relative clauses can significantly enhance the clarity and sophistication of your writing.
This guide will break down the concept of relative clauses into manageable parts, offering clear explanations and practical examples. We aim to equip you with the knowledge to identify, construct, and effectively employ these grammatical structures in your own communication. Mastering relative clauses is a journey that begins with understanding their fundamental role and progresses to recognizing their various forms and functions.
Understanding Relative Clauses
A relative clause, also known as an adjective clause, is a type of dependent clause that starts with a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. These clauses cannot stand alone as a complete sentence; they rely on an independent clause to make sense. Their primary purpose is to describe or identify the noun or pronoun that precedes them.
For instance, in the sentence “The book that I am reading is fascinating,” the clause “that I am reading” is a relative clause. It tells us *which* book is fascinating, providing essential identifying information. Without this clause, the sentence “The book is fascinating” would be grammatically correct but less informative.
Relative clauses are introduced by specific words. These introducers are crucial for signaling the presence of a relative clause and connecting it to the main part of the sentence. They act as both the subject or object within the relative clause and the connector to the antecedent, the word they modify.
Relative Pronouns: The Key Connectors
The most common introducers for relative clauses are relative pronouns. These include ‘who,’ ‘whom,’ ‘whose,’ ‘which,’ and ‘that.’ Each pronoun has specific uses based on whether it refers to people or things and its grammatical function within the clause.
‘Who’ is used to refer to people as the subject of the relative clause. For example, “The artist who painted this mural is very talented.” Here, ‘who’ acts as the subject of the verb ‘painted’ and refers to ‘the artist.’
‘Whom’ is used to refer to people as the object of the relative clause. This is often seen in formal writing. Consider the sentence, “The manager whom we met yesterday was very helpful.” ‘Whom’ is the object of the verb ‘met,’ referring to ‘the manager.’ It’s important to note that ‘who’ is often used informally in place of ‘whom’ as an object.
‘Whose’ is a possessive relative pronoun, indicating ownership. It can refer to both people and things. An example is, “I met a student whose grades have improved significantly.” ‘Whose’ shows that the grades belong to the student. Another example with a thing: “The car whose tires were flat needed a tow truck.”
‘Which’ is used to refer to things or animals. It can function as the subject or object of the relative clause. “The dog which barked all night kept me awake.” In this case, ‘which’ is the subject of ‘barked.’ For an object example: “The report which I submitted yesterday was well-received.” Here, ‘which’ is the object of ‘submitted.’
‘That’ is a versatile relative pronoun that can refer to both people and things. It is often used in restrictive clauses (which we will discuss later). “The person that helped me was very kind.” This is similar to “The person who helped me was very kind.” For things: “This is the house that Jack built.” ‘That’ can be the subject or object.
Relative Adverbs: Adding Temporal and Locational Context
Relative adverbs introduce relative clauses that provide information about time, place, or reason. The most common relative adverbs are ‘when,’ ‘where,’ and ‘why.’ These adverbs replace phrases that would otherwise begin with prepositions like ‘at which,’ ‘in which,’ or ‘for which.’
‘When’ is used to refer to a point in time or a duration. “I remember the day when we first met.” This clause specifies the particular day. It is equivalent to “I remember the day on which we first met.”
‘Where’ refers to a place or location. “This is the town where I grew up.” The clause identifies the town. It functions similarly to “This is the town in which I grew up.”
‘Why’ refers to a reason. “He explained the reason why he was late.” This clause clarifies the specific reason. It is synonymous with “He explained the reason for which he was late.”
Types of Relative Clauses
Relative clauses are broadly categorized into two main types: restrictive (or defining) and non-restrictive (or non-defining). The distinction is crucial for sentence structure, punctuation, and meaning.
Restrictive relative clauses are essential for identifying the noun they modify. They provide information that is necessary to understand which specific person or thing is being discussed. If you remove a restrictive clause, the meaning of the sentence would change significantly or become unclear.
These clauses are not set off by commas. The relative pronoun ‘that’ is often used in restrictive clauses, especially when referring to things. “The car that is parked illegally will be towed.” The clause “that is parked illegally” is essential to identify which car will be towed.
Non-restrictive relative clauses, on the other hand, provide additional, non-essential information about a noun that is already clearly identified. Removing a non-restrictive clause would not change the fundamental meaning of the sentence, although it would lose some descriptive detail.
Non-restrictive clauses are always set off by commas. They typically use ‘who,’ ‘whom,’ ‘whose,’ or ‘which,’ and rarely ‘that.’ “My sister, who lives in London, is visiting next week.” The clause “who lives in London” adds extra information about the sister, but we already know which sister is being discussed.
Restrictive Clauses in Detail
Restrictive clauses function like a magnifying glass, pinpointing a specific item or person from a larger group. They narrow down the reference of the noun. Without them, the identity of the noun would be ambiguous.
Consider the sentence: “Students who study regularly tend to perform better.” The clause “who study regularly” is restrictive because it specifies *which* students we are talking about – not all students, but only those who engage in consistent study habits. If we removed it, “Students tend to perform better,” the statement would become a broad generalization, losing the specific focus.
The pronoun ‘that’ is particularly useful in restrictive clauses when referring to inanimate objects or animals. “The software that we purchased is very user-friendly.” Here, ‘that we purchased’ is vital to distinguish this particular software from any other software.
When the relative pronoun is the object of the verb in the relative clause, it can often be omitted in restrictive clauses. “The book (that/which) I borrowed from the library is due back tomorrow.” The omission of ‘that’ or ‘which’ is very common and makes the sentence sound more natural in everyday speech and writing.
Non-Restrictive Clauses in Detail
Non-restrictive clauses act more like a parenthetical comment, adding interesting but not crucial details. The noun they modify is usually specific enough on its own, often being a proper noun or a unique item.
“Mount Everest, which is the world’s highest mountain, is located in the Himalayas.” The clause “which is the world’s highest mountain” provides extra factual information, but we already know which mountain “Mount Everest” refers to. The commas clearly signal this additional, non-essential information.
Using ‘that’ in a non-restrictive clause is generally considered incorrect. “My brother, that works in New York, is coming for Christmas” is grammatically flawed. It should be “My brother, who works in New York, is coming for Christmas.”
The omission of the relative pronoun is not possible in non-restrictive clauses. “The Eiffel Tower, which was built for the 1889 World’s Fair, is a global icon.” You cannot remove ‘which’ and still have a grammatically sound sentence.
Omitting Relative Pronouns
In certain situations, relative pronouns can be omitted from a sentence, making it more concise. This is a common feature of English grammar, particularly in informal contexts.
The rule for omission applies primarily to restrictive relative clauses. It is permissible when the relative pronoun functions as the object of the verb or preposition within the relative clause. The pronoun must not be the subject.
For example, in “The movie (that) we saw last night was excellent,” the pronoun ‘that’ can be omitted because it is the object of the verb ‘saw.’ We saw *the movie*. The sentence remains clear and grammatically correct without ‘that.’
Similarly, if the pronoun follows a preposition, and is the object of that preposition, it can be omitted, but the preposition itself often stays. “This is the chair (that) I told you about.” Here, ‘that’ is the object of the preposition ‘about.’ You could also rephrase it as “This is the chair about which I told you,” where ‘which’ cannot be omitted.
However, if the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, it cannot be omitted. In “The woman who is wearing the red hat is my aunt,” ‘who’ is the subject of ‘is wearing.’ Omitting ‘who’ would result in “The woman is wearing the red hat is my aunt,” which is ungrammatical.
This omission technique is a valuable tool for achieving fluency and avoiding wordiness in your writing. It allows sentences to flow more smoothly and naturally.
Common Mistakes and How to Avoid Them
Misusing relative pronouns or incorrectly punctuating relative clauses are frequent errors. Paying close attention to the rules can prevent these pitfalls.
A common mistake is confusing ‘who’ and ‘whom.’ Remember, ‘who’ is for subjects, and ‘whom’ is for objects. If you can replace the pronoun with ‘he’ or ‘she,’ use ‘who.’ If you can replace it with ‘him’ or ‘her,’ use ‘whom.’ For instance, “The person who arrived late missed the presentation.” (‘He’ arrived late.) “The person whom I invited declined the invitation.” (I invited ‘him.’)
Another error involves the incorrect use of commas with restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. Restrictive clauses, which are essential for meaning, should never be set off by commas. Non-restrictive clauses, which provide extra information, must always be enclosed in commas.
For example, “My brother, who is a doctor, gave me advice” implies I have only one brother, and the fact that he’s a doctor is extra detail. “My brother who is a doctor gave me advice” implies I have multiple brothers, and this clause specifies *which* brother gave the advice (the one who is a doctor).
Over-reliance on ‘that’ can also be a stylistic issue. While ‘that’ is correct in many restrictive clauses, using ‘who’ or ‘which’ can sometimes create a more formal or precise tone, especially when referring to people or specific things respectively.
Finally, ensure that your relative clause clearly refers to a single, unambiguous antecedent. Ambiguity arises when it’s unclear whether the clause modifies the noun immediately preceding it or another noun further away. For example, “The man saw the dog on the hill with a telescope.” Did the man have the telescope, or did the dog? Rephrasing is necessary: “Using a telescope, the man saw the dog on the hill,” or “The man saw the dog on the hill, and the dog had a telescope.”
Practice Exercises
Applying the rules is key to mastering relative clauses. Here are some exercises to test your understanding.
Exercise 1: Identifying Relative Clauses
Read the following sentences and identify the relative clause in each. Also, determine if the clause is restrictive or non-restrictive.
1. The novel that won the Pulitzer Prize is a challenging read.
2. My car, which I bought last year, has already needed several repairs.
3. The scientist whose research was groundbreaking received a Nobel Prize.
4. We visited the museum where the famous painting is displayed.
5. She is the colleague whom I admire most.
Answers:
1. “that won the Pulitzer Prize” (restrictive)
2. “which I bought last year” (non-restrictive)
3. “whose research was groundbreaking” (restrictive)
4. “where the famous painting is displayed” (restrictive)
5. “whom I admire most” (restrictive)
Exercise 2: Choosing the Correct Relative Pronoun
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that).
1. The students ______ passed the exam celebrated their success.
2. I need to find the keys ______ I left on the table.
3. The biography, ______ was written by a renowned historian, offers new insights.
4. He is a writer ______ work is known worldwide.
5. The committee ______ interviewed me seemed very thorough.
Answers:
1. who
2. that/which
3. which
4. whose
5. who/that
Exercise 3: Punctuation of Relative Clauses
Add commas where necessary to correctly punctuate the relative clauses in the following sentences.
1. The house that stands on the corner is for sale.
2. My uncle who lives in Canada is visiting next month.
3. The Amazon River which flows through South America is the largest river by discharge volume.
4. This is the restaurant that serves the best pasta in town.
5. Sarah whose dog won first prize in the competition was overjoyed.
Answers:
1. The house that stands on the corner is for sale. (No commas needed – restrictive)
2. My uncle, who lives in Canada, is visiting next month. (Commas needed – non-restrictive)
3. The Amazon River, which flows through South America, is the largest river by discharge volume. (Commas needed – non-restrictive)
4. This is the restaurant that serves the best pasta in town. (No commas needed – restrictive)
5. Sarah, whose dog won first prize in the competition, was overjoyed. (Commas needed – non-restrictive)
Exercise 4: Omitting Relative Pronouns
Rewrite the following sentences, omitting the relative pronoun where possible.
1. The email that I received this morning contained important information.
2. This is the park where we often go for picnics.
3. The person whom you are looking for is not here.
4. She is the artist who painted this beautiful landscape.
5. The book which I finished yesterday was captivating.
Answers:
1. The email I received this morning contained important information.
2. This is the park we often go for picnics. (Note: ‘where’ cannot be omitted here as it’s a relative adverb, not a pronoun acting as an object.)
3. The person you are looking for is not here.
4. She is the artist painted this beautiful landscape. (Incorrect – ‘who’ is the subject and cannot be omitted.)
5. The book I finished yesterday was captivating.
Advanced Usage and Nuances
Beyond the basic types, relative clauses can be integrated into sentences in more complex ways, adding layers of meaning and sophistication.
Prepositional phrases can be incorporated directly into relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, the preposition can either precede the pronoun or appear at the end of the clause. “The candidate about whom the interview was conducted is very experienced” is more formal than “The candidate whom the interview was conducted about is very experienced.”
In informal English, it’s common to see the preposition at the end, and ‘who’ might even replace ‘whom’: “The candidate who the interview was conducted about is very experienced.” The version with the preposition at the beginning of the clause, “The candidate about whom the interview was conducted,” is generally considered more grammatically correct in formal writing.
Another advanced structure involves using ‘what’ to introduce a fused or free relative clause. These clauses do not modify a preceding noun; instead, they contain their own antecedent within them. “What he said surprised everyone” means “The thing(s) that he said surprised everyone.”
Fused relative clauses function as a noun phrase. They can act as the subject, object, or complement of a sentence. “She finally understood what was required of her.” Here, “what was required of her” acts as the direct object of the verb “understood.”
The use of ‘as’ as a relative pronoun is less common and typically appears after ‘such’ or ‘same.’ “He is not such a person as would betray his friends.” This construction is quite formal and often replaced by simpler phrasing in modern English.
Understanding these nuances allows for greater flexibility and precision in expressing complex ideas. It’s about choosing the right structure to convey the intended meaning with clarity and style.
Relative Clauses in Academic and Professional Writing
In academic and professional contexts, precise language is paramount. Relative clauses are indispensable tools for achieving this precision, allowing writers to convey complex information efficiently.
Academic papers often rely heavily on restrictive relative clauses to define terms, specify research subjects, and present findings. For example, “The methodology that was employed in this study involved a double-blind experimental design.” This clause clearly identifies the specific methodology being discussed, crucial for scientific reproducibility.
Non-restrictive clauses are also valuable, used to provide background information or additional context without disrupting the main argument. “The control group, which received a placebo, showed no significant improvement.” This adds important detail about the control group without which the core finding might be less clear.
In professional reports and business communications, clarity and conciseness are key. Relative clauses help to streamline information. “We are addressing the issues that were raised in the last board meeting.” This sentence is more direct than elaborating on the issues separately.
The correct use of relative pronouns and adverbs ensures that the relationships between different pieces of information are clearly established. This prevents misinterpretation and enhances the overall credibility of the written work.
Mastering these structures elevates writing from simple statements to sophisticated arguments, demonstrating a strong command of the English language necessary for success in demanding fields.